Biomes are areas sharing comparable climate, topographic and soil conditions, and hence the same basic types of biological communities. Biomes may be classified in various ways, tundra, desserts, grasslands, forests, and aquatic. Due to the earth being cooler at higher latitudes, many temperature-controlled biomes arise in latitudinal groups.
In tundra's there are no trees and the water is frozen and unavailable for most of the year; having the place to be more dirt than Greenland. The given definition of tundra is a treeless landscape that occurs at high latitudes or on mountaintops. Grassland biomes are large, rolling grounds of grasslands, plants, and herbs. A grassland is a zone where the average annual precipitation is great enough to support grasses, and in some areas, a few trees. Where there is lots of green being shown, there will be quite more grass rather than trees the desert biome is one that is very hot and dry also, very limited water.
Desserts have wide daily and seasonal temperature instabilities. Allowing plants seeds to only bloom after spring rains. Animals also have adaptations, many are nocturnal and while others can conserve water. Deserts are defenseless because they are slow growing vegetation which is damaged by off road vehicles. Usually, people dot care when driving, yet they are making a harm to the environment. With all the damage that is caused by the off-road vehicles, it takes decades for desert soils to recover.
In addition, forest Biome is an extensive term used to define areas where there are many trees, dependent on the category of trees in that zone. Forests can be further divided into five main categories; coniferous forest, tropical rainforests deciduous forest, mixed leaved forest, and Mediterranean forest. Forests signify a third of the earth's terrestrial, and are found in the four angles of the globe. Cloud Forests have high mountains where vapor and mist keep vegetation frequently drizzly. Tropical rainforests happen where rainfall surpasses 200 cm (80 inches) per year and temperatures are warm to blistering year-round. Temperate regions support lush summer plant growth when water is plentiful.
On the other hand, the aquatic biome is the largest biome. Water covers nearly 75 percent of the earth's surface, in oceans, lakes, rivers, etc. In conclusion, the water biome can be divided into two groups: freshwater areas and saltwater areas. The ocean refuges most of our planet and accounts for 97% of the water found on earth.
By Miriam Zarco
Article Source: Biomes Surrounding Us
The Periodic Table & Its Components
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of chemical elements which are sorted in order by increasing atomic numbers in vertical columns referred to as groups, and horizontal rows known as periods. It is a resourceful tool in chemistry and other branches of science. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, founded the Period Law and the foundation for the Periodic Table. The Periodic Law states that elements are in order of increasing mass. Henry Mosley, an English physicist, organized the elements according to increasing atomic number, which is used in the modern Periodic Table. There are currently 118 elements on the Periodic Table, 90 of which are found in nature, and the rest were developed by humanity.
Chemical elements are substances which cannot be chemically broken down into smaller substances. The elements of the periodic table are distinguished by their atomic numbers, which are the number of protons in the nuclei within the atoms of the elements. The number of electrons in an atom are equivalent to the number of protons. There are three visible components to each element on the Periodic Table, which are the atomic number, the element's symbol, and its atomic mass. The atomic number is the number of protons in an element's atoms, the symbol is consisted of one or two letters which represent the element, and the atomic mass is the combination of the masses of protons and neutrons. For example, the element Carbon's symbol is C, its atomic number is six, and its atomic number is twelve.
The elements are broken up into several groups within the Periodic Table. A majority of the elements are metals, which are narrowed down to alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, and inner transition metals. The last column to the very right of the table are known as inert gases. The column before inert gases are halogens. Like inert gases and halogens, the four groups before these two columns are also non-metals. The first two groups, beginning with Hydrogen and Beryllium, are 1A and 2A; the groups beginning with Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine and Helium are 3A through 8A. The metals in between 1A through 8A are 1B through 10B.
The Periodic Table of elements is essential in chemistry because it contains fundamental information which gives chemists the ability to distinguish an element's properties due to the table's format. With this data, chemists can predict chemical reactions because of the different groups (metals, inert gases, metalloids, etc.), and they can determine the associations of different elements with each other.
By Alliyah Beltran
Article Source: The Periodic Table & Its Components
Chemical elements are substances which cannot be chemically broken down into smaller substances. The elements of the periodic table are distinguished by their atomic numbers, which are the number of protons in the nuclei within the atoms of the elements. The number of electrons in an atom are equivalent to the number of protons. There are three visible components to each element on the Periodic Table, which are the atomic number, the element's symbol, and its atomic mass. The atomic number is the number of protons in an element's atoms, the symbol is consisted of one or two letters which represent the element, and the atomic mass is the combination of the masses of protons and neutrons. For example, the element Carbon's symbol is C, its atomic number is six, and its atomic number is twelve.
The elements are broken up into several groups within the Periodic Table. A majority of the elements are metals, which are narrowed down to alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, and inner transition metals. The last column to the very right of the table are known as inert gases. The column before inert gases are halogens. Like inert gases and halogens, the four groups before these two columns are also non-metals. The first two groups, beginning with Hydrogen and Beryllium, are 1A and 2A; the groups beginning with Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine and Helium are 3A through 8A. The metals in between 1A through 8A are 1B through 10B.
The Periodic Table of elements is essential in chemistry because it contains fundamental information which gives chemists the ability to distinguish an element's properties due to the table's format. With this data, chemists can predict chemical reactions because of the different groups (metals, inert gases, metalloids, etc.), and they can determine the associations of different elements with each other.
By Alliyah Beltran
Article Source: The Periodic Table & Its Components
Physics Behind the Paris Gun
The Paris gun is also known as the Pariskanone, and was first used on March 23, 1918. This new German attack gun was one of the most powerful weapon that was used in World War 1. It was surprising to many people that fought in World War 1 because of the physics behind the German weapon. The power of the shell and the tube together can be so powerful that when it fires it can damage lots of items. It was so powerful that it had enough power to kill 260 Parisians and many buildings in France. These casualties were not common in the 1918's and was a propaganda success for those in Germany. Many people also did not think that the Germans were able to pull this off.
The technology behind the weapon is very unique. The tube was about 380 mm and the barrel was about 34m. The firearm weighed 138 tons and can propel a shell with a velocity of 5,260 feet per second. This was a successful invention during World War 1 because no other weapon can shoot as far and be as precise. The physics behind the Paris gun is that it uses velocity, acceleration, and projectile motion. Velocity and acceleration are needed in physics because it shows the speed of an object and a moving object that has the capacity in gaining more speed.
The Paris gun is an example of projectile motion because the shell can be launch above the Earth's surface, called the stratosphere, and descend in a curved path because of the law of gravity. Inside the Paris gun the tube fires the shell up to 25 miles using projectile motion. Keep in mind that the tube of the Paris gun is about 380 mm long. The shell travels in the air in a U-shape then returns to the ground due to gravity. With this type of motion the shell is most likely to cause more destruction because of the gravity acting on the objects in the pass. Gravity plays a big role with the Paris gun because with a projectile like this there is one main force that acts upon gravity. The more force the shell has the farther it will travel with the help of velocity and acceleration. The Paris gun uses Newtons first law of motion which determines the direction the shell can go. France was not prepared to see what Germans can do.
By Jasmin Quezada
Article Source: Physics Behind the Paris Gun
The technology behind the weapon is very unique. The tube was about 380 mm and the barrel was about 34m. The firearm weighed 138 tons and can propel a shell with a velocity of 5,260 feet per second. This was a successful invention during World War 1 because no other weapon can shoot as far and be as precise. The physics behind the Paris gun is that it uses velocity, acceleration, and projectile motion. Velocity and acceleration are needed in physics because it shows the speed of an object and a moving object that has the capacity in gaining more speed.
The Paris gun is an example of projectile motion because the shell can be launch above the Earth's surface, called the stratosphere, and descend in a curved path because of the law of gravity. Inside the Paris gun the tube fires the shell up to 25 miles using projectile motion. Keep in mind that the tube of the Paris gun is about 380 mm long. The shell travels in the air in a U-shape then returns to the ground due to gravity. With this type of motion the shell is most likely to cause more destruction because of the gravity acting on the objects in the pass. Gravity plays a big role with the Paris gun because with a projectile like this there is one main force that acts upon gravity. The more force the shell has the farther it will travel with the help of velocity and acceleration. The Paris gun uses Newtons first law of motion which determines the direction the shell can go. France was not prepared to see what Germans can do.
By Jasmin Quezada
Article Source: Physics Behind the Paris Gun
North Pole to South Pole, Planning a Trip From Chennai to Delhi?
Chennai
Tamil Nadu's capital, Chennai is the house for many industrial and commercial establishment. It is famous for its art, music, temples, parks and beaches. Chennai gets a lot of visitors every year, they travel to and from different parts to Chennai. There are many flights from Chennai to Delhi and other important cities in India that fly from the Chennai International Airport, which handles both the domestic and international flights.
Chennai is situated on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. This city has a rich tradition, historical and academic growth compared to other states. This city also represents the different aspects of the Dravidian culture. Chennai is considered to be the leading commercial center of South India.It takes the credit for contributing to the increase in the economy of the country. Chennai is considered to be the leading commercial center of South India. It takes the credit for contributing to the increase in the economy of the country. Chennai is home to several industries like automobile, software services, petrochemicals, financial services, textiles and hardware manufacturing.
Delhi
Delhi is the capital of India, this city has a rich history of the kings, the struggles, freedom movement and many more. In Delhi, we can witness the most beautiful sculpture, art, architecture and scenic beauty. Delhi has a modern cosmopolitan culture and attracts many visitors for various purposes. The new dynamic meets the old imperial is the capital city Delhi. This city bags endless surprises and the traveler can't stop surprising themselves at every corner of the city and deserves its title of 'the city of contrasts'. The magnificent architecture of Red Fort, the walks through the gardens of Lal Quila, the hustle- bustle of the Sarojini Nagar market, you never feel restless in this city. Delhi is not limited to this and has more. This city has a footfalls in crores every year. Delhi is the melting pot of varied culture, hence there are many people who want to get settled also for its welcoming and homely atmosphere. Delhi has a very different atmosphere as compared to other cities of India, this city caters to all age group and spheres. Not just the people travel for business but also for leisure. Delhi which is situated in the north routes to some exotic locations for holiday.
The best way to travel from Chennai to Delhi is by flight as the distance is quite far compared to traveling to other cities. The duration of the direct flights to Delhi is about 2 hours and 30 minutes whereas the journey on flights with stopovers take anywhere between 3 to 4 hours.
There are many airline carriers which provide umpteen number of flight options from Chennai to Delhi. IndiGo, Air India, JetLite, Jet Airways Konnect and SpiceJet are the airlines that render flight services between Chennai and Delhi.
Get the cheapest flight fare from Chennai to Delhi comparing from the online portals which provide the best options are the online portals as the customers get access to the official website of an airline or they can log into the booking site of the authorized travel agents. They can book tickets of single trip or a round trip. Some of the airlines give huge discounts if the customers make bookings for a round trip.
Go cashless and book your tickets online by your debit, credit card, net banking, promo codes or online wallet and an assure safety mode of payment. Get great discounts on flights from Chennai to Delhi. Even if it's your last minute bookings these online sites will assist you to get the cheap flight rates from Chennai to Delhi.
By Isha Chatterjee
Article Source: North Pole to South Pole, Planning a Trip From Chennai to Delhi?
Tamil Nadu's capital, Chennai is the house for many industrial and commercial establishment. It is famous for its art, music, temples, parks and beaches. Chennai gets a lot of visitors every year, they travel to and from different parts to Chennai. There are many flights from Chennai to Delhi and other important cities in India that fly from the Chennai International Airport, which handles both the domestic and international flights.
Chennai is situated on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. This city has a rich tradition, historical and academic growth compared to other states. This city also represents the different aspects of the Dravidian culture. Chennai is considered to be the leading commercial center of South India.It takes the credit for contributing to the increase in the economy of the country. Chennai is considered to be the leading commercial center of South India. It takes the credit for contributing to the increase in the economy of the country. Chennai is home to several industries like automobile, software services, petrochemicals, financial services, textiles and hardware manufacturing.
Delhi
Delhi is the capital of India, this city has a rich history of the kings, the struggles, freedom movement and many more. In Delhi, we can witness the most beautiful sculpture, art, architecture and scenic beauty. Delhi has a modern cosmopolitan culture and attracts many visitors for various purposes. The new dynamic meets the old imperial is the capital city Delhi. This city bags endless surprises and the traveler can't stop surprising themselves at every corner of the city and deserves its title of 'the city of contrasts'. The magnificent architecture of Red Fort, the walks through the gardens of Lal Quila, the hustle- bustle of the Sarojini Nagar market, you never feel restless in this city. Delhi is not limited to this and has more. This city has a footfalls in crores every year. Delhi is the melting pot of varied culture, hence there are many people who want to get settled also for its welcoming and homely atmosphere. Delhi has a very different atmosphere as compared to other cities of India, this city caters to all age group and spheres. Not just the people travel for business but also for leisure. Delhi which is situated in the north routes to some exotic locations for holiday.
The best way to travel from Chennai to Delhi is by flight as the distance is quite far compared to traveling to other cities. The duration of the direct flights to Delhi is about 2 hours and 30 minutes whereas the journey on flights with stopovers take anywhere between 3 to 4 hours.
There are many airline carriers which provide umpteen number of flight options from Chennai to Delhi. IndiGo, Air India, JetLite, Jet Airways Konnect and SpiceJet are the airlines that render flight services between Chennai and Delhi.
Get the cheapest flight fare from Chennai to Delhi comparing from the online portals which provide the best options are the online portals as the customers get access to the official website of an airline or they can log into the booking site of the authorized travel agents. They can book tickets of single trip or a round trip. Some of the airlines give huge discounts if the customers make bookings for a round trip.
Go cashless and book your tickets online by your debit, credit card, net banking, promo codes or online wallet and an assure safety mode of payment. Get great discounts on flights from Chennai to Delhi. Even if it's your last minute bookings these online sites will assist you to get the cheap flight rates from Chennai to Delhi.
By Isha Chatterjee
Article Source: North Pole to South Pole, Planning a Trip From Chennai to Delhi?
Find Your True Self With Bangalore to Delhi Flights
It was my first trip from Bangalore to Delhi and I was very excited. Earlier my plans to Delhi dropped for not so good reasons. This time I left no stone UN-turned to plan it properly and I did it well in advance as well as had gone through many articles and website to know more about the best deals from Bangalore to Delhi flight. As it is very easy to book it online, I did not keep any other options for booking flight tickets. I was little skeptical for the online payments but learned that it was very secured. As I had planned my dates almost two months ahead, I could patiently go through all the websites and compare the fares from Bangalore to Delhi. I planned my trip with a friend, it was the first time for her as well. I had set price alert features because during the week I may not get time to glance through lowest fares during the week, this trick really helped me. For a week I followed and finally book tickets with the best deals in hand.
I love to travel and what I am particular even more is staying at the hotel, while searching for lowest fares on flight I could book hotels in Delhi (5*) from one single portal. This made the task even more easier, it takes no time to decide as the listing and deals are optical catch. I filtered my requirements to an upper limit as mentioned I dislike to compromise my stay or you may say "my sleep". There are umpteen number of hotel options which fits with ones allocated budget. Now all the requisites for my travel were done. I also had verified from the hotel and the online portal for cancellations, you know it why I guess.
Distance of Bangalore airport from the city is approx 35 km's, takes almost 45 minutes, but I leave just 25mins away, as there is no traffic in the morning, I would enjoy the fresh air with the view highlands and skyscraper buildings. My flight was IndiGo at 6 am and I reached New Delhi at 8:40 am, from Delhi airport to Connaught place where I had booked my hotel was not so far but it look long due to the heavy traffic.
This city was definitely very different from all the other cities in India I have been to. The people, language, culture, body language was obviously different, but the best part was I did not witness a single problem with the people. I found it very easy to communicate to the people there. It was not very different when you visit New Delhi from a city like Bangalore, as you see all the high rise buildings and other city like feature as any other. The second day we had planned for Delhi Darshan, while me and my friend headed towards the Purana Delhi, it was very clear from the rest of the city. I saw Cycle Rikshaw, the messed up traffic, the people with a very different dialect within the city.
Places I visited:
Historical Places
- Red Fort
- India Gate
- Qu tub Minar
- Jantar Mantar
- Akshardham Temple
- Bahai (Lotus) Temple
- Nehru Planetarium
- Lodi Gardens
- Garden of Five Senses
Shopping Places in Delhi
- Connaught Place
- Chandni Chowk
- Hauzkhas
There are a lot of places that you can visit while you are in Delhi. This place is a heaven for the shop lovers where they can buy anything to everything. Also Delhi is blessed with an array of historical sites, beautiful temples, and architectural beauty.
By Isha Chatterjee
Article Source: Find Your True Self With Bangalore to Delhi Flights
I love to travel and what I am particular even more is staying at the hotel, while searching for lowest fares on flight I could book hotels in Delhi (5*) from one single portal. This made the task even more easier, it takes no time to decide as the listing and deals are optical catch. I filtered my requirements to an upper limit as mentioned I dislike to compromise my stay or you may say "my sleep". There are umpteen number of hotel options which fits with ones allocated budget. Now all the requisites for my travel were done. I also had verified from the hotel and the online portal for cancellations, you know it why I guess.
Distance of Bangalore airport from the city is approx 35 km's, takes almost 45 minutes, but I leave just 25mins away, as there is no traffic in the morning, I would enjoy the fresh air with the view highlands and skyscraper buildings. My flight was IndiGo at 6 am and I reached New Delhi at 8:40 am, from Delhi airport to Connaught place where I had booked my hotel was not so far but it look long due to the heavy traffic.
This city was definitely very different from all the other cities in India I have been to. The people, language, culture, body language was obviously different, but the best part was I did not witness a single problem with the people. I found it very easy to communicate to the people there. It was not very different when you visit New Delhi from a city like Bangalore, as you see all the high rise buildings and other city like feature as any other. The second day we had planned for Delhi Darshan, while me and my friend headed towards the Purana Delhi, it was very clear from the rest of the city. I saw Cycle Rikshaw, the messed up traffic, the people with a very different dialect within the city.
Places I visited:
Historical Places
- Red Fort
- India Gate
- Qu tub Minar
- Jantar Mantar
- Akshardham Temple
- Bahai (Lotus) Temple
- Nehru Planetarium
- Lodi Gardens
- Garden of Five Senses
Shopping Places in Delhi
- Connaught Place
- Chandni Chowk
- Hauzkhas
There are a lot of places that you can visit while you are in Delhi. This place is a heaven for the shop lovers where they can buy anything to everything. Also Delhi is blessed with an array of historical sites, beautiful temples, and architectural beauty.
By Isha Chatterjee
Article Source: Find Your True Self With Bangalore to Delhi Flights
While Planning A Greece Trip, Following These Steps Is A Must
Do you always want a good place to hang out and enjoy a vacation? Do you wish to get relaxation, rejuvenation, and adventure? If yes, then you must go to picturesque and romantic Greece. Located on the Mediterranean Sea, this place offers raw European countryside, the opportunity for surfing beaches and wonderful sunsets. Get ready to soak yourselves in the mesmerizing architecture and historical art. Apart from this, the nightlife and food are very popular; tourists simply love it.
Step 1
Firstly, shortlist a good Greece travel package, which is not only in your budget but also ensures comfortable spending. When you zero down on this, book flights. Ensure that the visa and passport formalities are done well in advance.
Step 2
The tour and travel package should be scheduled as per the season; popular seasons include mid-June to late August. If less crowded time is preferred, then don't hesitate in booking the Greece package somewhere around autumn or spring; this will surely help in escaping commercialization.
Step 3
Always be proactive and book a car so that even friends and family can also travel along. Standard shift is the common kinds of vehicles that you will find in Greece. Moreover, if you wish to go to far off places, you will have to stick to public transport like buses and taxis.
Step 4
When we talk about Holiday packages to Greece, you get a good opportunity of visiting all tourist attractions. Sometimes people don't wish to visit the same old places; but with these packages, you will get some new and interesting destinations on your list. Greece will be all set to surprise you with its beauty. Don't miss the Hydra islands, the Archaeological Museum, the Acropolis, Athens open-air theaters or Crete.
Step 5
Given below are some unconventional dos and donuts while vacationing in Greece. The rustic side must be awakened and embraced; spare some time and visit those Greece's chiseled parts i.e. the smaller villages and towns. Explore some crude and raw places and have a wonderful experience of life. The authenticity of the place can be enjoyed with a lot of relaxation and joy. The commercial side can be cut down and instead of an international hotel or a big restaurant, try opting for an inn and a small eatery.
Once you follow these steps, no one can stop you from having a blast of a time there. Always keep in mind that you need to select a good tour package. Usually, affordable tour packages contain everything right from destinations to meals to airport transfers. Choose a package wisely as no one likes compromising on the vacation. Don't settle for someone who is offering cheap packages; instead, go for someone who is offering a well-planned tour. Once all things fall in place, you will surely have a vacation which will be a memorable one.
Get set with your camera and be ready to explore Greece travel package in your own sweet way. However, certain steps should be followed while planning a trip there.
By Julia Johnson
Article Source: While Planning A Greece Trip, Following These Steps Is A Must
Step 1
Firstly, shortlist a good Greece travel package, which is not only in your budget but also ensures comfortable spending. When you zero down on this, book flights. Ensure that the visa and passport formalities are done well in advance.
Step 2
The tour and travel package should be scheduled as per the season; popular seasons include mid-June to late August. If less crowded time is preferred, then don't hesitate in booking the Greece package somewhere around autumn or spring; this will surely help in escaping commercialization.
Step 3
Always be proactive and book a car so that even friends and family can also travel along. Standard shift is the common kinds of vehicles that you will find in Greece. Moreover, if you wish to go to far off places, you will have to stick to public transport like buses and taxis.
Step 4
When we talk about Holiday packages to Greece, you get a good opportunity of visiting all tourist attractions. Sometimes people don't wish to visit the same old places; but with these packages, you will get some new and interesting destinations on your list. Greece will be all set to surprise you with its beauty. Don't miss the Hydra islands, the Archaeological Museum, the Acropolis, Athens open-air theaters or Crete.
Step 5
Given below are some unconventional dos and donuts while vacationing in Greece. The rustic side must be awakened and embraced; spare some time and visit those Greece's chiseled parts i.e. the smaller villages and towns. Explore some crude and raw places and have a wonderful experience of life. The authenticity of the place can be enjoyed with a lot of relaxation and joy. The commercial side can be cut down and instead of an international hotel or a big restaurant, try opting for an inn and a small eatery.
Once you follow these steps, no one can stop you from having a blast of a time there. Always keep in mind that you need to select a good tour package. Usually, affordable tour packages contain everything right from destinations to meals to airport transfers. Choose a package wisely as no one likes compromising on the vacation. Don't settle for someone who is offering cheap packages; instead, go for someone who is offering a well-planned tour. Once all things fall in place, you will surely have a vacation which will be a memorable one.
Get set with your camera and be ready to explore Greece travel package in your own sweet way. However, certain steps should be followed while planning a trip there.
By Julia Johnson
Article Source: While Planning A Greece Trip, Following These Steps Is A Must
What Exactly Is DNA Made Up Of?
DNA
Have you ever asked yourself the question why my eyes are this color? Or any question as to why we look the way we do. All our features come down to our genetics. Those genetics are family traits that are passed down through our bloodlines. It all comes down to what is considered the fundamental building blocks of life, DNA is the basic substance in the life forms you see around you, yet it is a complicated concept. Your DNA determines the color of your eyes, skin, hair and enable functions such as your sight and hearing. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid which contains the biological aspects that make everyone individually different. DNA is all contained in one molecule, and there are millions of tightly packaged DNA cells all throughout many life forms making it the building block of the DNA. DNA. We have all heard of DNA for years, but what do you really know about it. What is DNA made of? In this paper, we will talk about this mini miracle called DNA.
Like any good story, we need to start at the beginning. DNA was discovered in 1868 by a Swiss medical student named Johann Friedrich Miescher. Miescher was working with pus from a surgical would, where he was investigating the white blood cells. It was in these white blood cells that he found the instruction booklet for making us who we are. It is important to note that DNA is in every living being. Even though Miescher discovered DNA in 1868, it would be over 80 more years before DNA was considered actual genetic material. After Miescher found DNA, the medical and scientific communities of that era felt that DNA was too simple to be genetic material. They would further discover that DNA is a long complex polymer made from repeating nucleotide.
So, complex and long in fact that it has been recorded that a humans chromosome number one is 85 nanometers long and contains 220 million base pairs. The double helix DNA structure is made from alternating sugar and phosphate bonds. Holding these sugar and phosphate bonds together is hydrogen. Earlier we mentioned that in early DNA discovery it was considered too simple to be actually viable genetic material. This was thought due to the four base materials that are found in all DNA. These are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine with these four bases attached to the sugar/phosphate they form the complete nucleotide. This is just a brief definition on what single handedly is the three most important letters of existence, DNA.
By Omar Salem
Article Source: What Exactly Is DNA Made Up Of?
Have you ever asked yourself the question why my eyes are this color? Or any question as to why we look the way we do. All our features come down to our genetics. Those genetics are family traits that are passed down through our bloodlines. It all comes down to what is considered the fundamental building blocks of life, DNA is the basic substance in the life forms you see around you, yet it is a complicated concept. Your DNA determines the color of your eyes, skin, hair and enable functions such as your sight and hearing. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid which contains the biological aspects that make everyone individually different. DNA is all contained in one molecule, and there are millions of tightly packaged DNA cells all throughout many life forms making it the building block of the DNA. DNA. We have all heard of DNA for years, but what do you really know about it. What is DNA made of? In this paper, we will talk about this mini miracle called DNA.
Like any good story, we need to start at the beginning. DNA was discovered in 1868 by a Swiss medical student named Johann Friedrich Miescher. Miescher was working with pus from a surgical would, where he was investigating the white blood cells. It was in these white blood cells that he found the instruction booklet for making us who we are. It is important to note that DNA is in every living being. Even though Miescher discovered DNA in 1868, it would be over 80 more years before DNA was considered actual genetic material. After Miescher found DNA, the medical and scientific communities of that era felt that DNA was too simple to be genetic material. They would further discover that DNA is a long complex polymer made from repeating nucleotide.
So, complex and long in fact that it has been recorded that a humans chromosome number one is 85 nanometers long and contains 220 million base pairs. The double helix DNA structure is made from alternating sugar and phosphate bonds. Holding these sugar and phosphate bonds together is hydrogen. Earlier we mentioned that in early DNA discovery it was considered too simple to be actually viable genetic material. This was thought due to the four base materials that are found in all DNA. These are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine with these four bases attached to the sugar/phosphate they form the complete nucleotide. This is just a brief definition on what single handedly is the three most important letters of existence, DNA.
By Omar Salem
Article Source: What Exactly Is DNA Made Up Of?
Mysterious Dark Matter Is Missing In Ancient Galaxies
The Universe keeps its secrets well. Long before there was anything around with eyes to see, the galaxies formed, and the myriad of sparkling, brilliant stars were born--lighting up what had previously been a barren swath of featureless darkness. The most widely accepted theory of how the galaxies were born proposes that, in the primordial Universe, opaque clouds of pristine gas collected along immense, massive filaments composed of the transparent, mysterious, and ghostly dark matter--which is an unidentified material that is invisible because it does not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic radiation. It is thought that the dark matter--the most abundant form of matter in the Cosmos--formed the bizarre cradles of newborn galaxies. However, in March 2017, astronomers announced that their new observations of rotating galaxies at the peak era of galactic birth, 10 billion years ago, surprisingly reveal that these massive, star-birthing ancient galaxies are completely dominated by the "ordinary" atomic (baryonic) matter that constructs our familiar world--with dark matter playing a considerably less important role, in comparable regions of their outer disks, than it does in modern galaxies inhabiting the local Universe.
The international team of astronomers, led by the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany, mapped the rotation curves of six galaxies in the ancient Universe to distances of approximately 65,000 light-years from their secretive hearts and found that their rotation velocities are not constant but drop with radius. These new findings have been supported by observations of over 200 more galaxies, where varying estimates of their dynamical conditions also show a high baryonic mass fraction. Furthermore, the new calculations suggest that these very early galaxies had a much thicker disk, with turbulent motion accounting for a percentage of the dynamical support.
For decades, numerous different studies of galaxies inhabiting the local Universe have unveiled the existence, as well as the importance, of the dark matter. While "ordinary", or baryonic matter, can be observed as dazzling stars or glowing clouds of gas and dust, the dark matter exclusively dances with "ordinary" matter through the force of gravity. Most importantly, the dark matter is generally thought to be responsible for flat rotation curves in spiral galaxies--that are similar to our own Milky Way. This means that the rotation velocities of spiral galaxies are either constant or increasing with radius.
In The Dark
Scientists are much more certain about what the dark matter is not than what it is. By fitting a theoretical model of the composition of the Cosmos to the combined set of cosmological observations, astronomers have determined that the approximate composition of the Cosmos is 68% dark energy, 27% dark matter, and only 5% baryonic--or "ordinary" atomic matter. Even though atomic matter is obviously the runt of the Cosmic litter of three, it is really extraordinary because it is the material that brought life into the Universe. Atomic matter accounts for literally every atomic element listed in the familiar Periodic Table. The Big Bang birth of the Universe, almost 14 billion years ago, manufactured only the lightest of atomic elements--hydrogen, helium, and scant quantities of lithium and beryllium. All of the atomic elements heavier than helium were created in the searing-hot nuclear-fusing furnaces of the stars, or in the supernova explosions that herald the demise of the most massive stars in the Universe. Atomic elements heavier than helium are termed metals by astronomers--and, therefore, the term metal carries a different meaning for astronomers than it does for chemists.
As early as 1915, physicists began to suspect that an invisible form of matter--meaning matter that is not detectable using electromagnetic radiation--might lurk in the Universe secretly. The term dark matter was coined by the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn (1851-1922) who, at the beginning of the 20th century, observed the movements of the stars within our Milky Way Galaxy. However, Kapteyn came to the conclusion that no such matter could really exist in the Universe.
In 1932, the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort (1900-1992), in an effort to explain the orbital velocities of stars in our Galaxy, was the first to actually propose dark matter's true existence in nature. In 1933, Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974), a Swiss-American astrophysicist at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, also proposed the real existence of an abundant form of transparent matter. Zwicky did this in an effort to explain evidence of "missing mass" hiding phantom-like in the Cosmos, revealing its presence only by the way it influenced the orbital velocities of galaxies within distant galaxy clusters. Strong evidence derived from galactic rotation curves was obtained by the Caltech astrophysicist Horace W. Babcock (1912-2003) in 1939, but he did not attribute his highly suggestive observations to the existence of the dark matter.
The American astronomer, Vera Rubin (1928-2016), performed pioneering work on galaxy rotation rates. She was responsible for uncovering the discrepancy between the predicted angular motion of galaxies and their observed motion. This nagging discrepancy became known as the galaxy rotation problem, and it originally met with considerable skepticism. However, Rubin's results were ultimately confirmed over subsequent decades.
Rubin, who was of the Carnegie Institute's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in Washington D.C., began work that was related to her controversial thesis regarding galaxy clusters with her colleague, the instrument-maker, Kent Ford (b. 1931). Together Rubin and Ford made hundreds of observations, resulting in what is known as the Rubin-Ford Effect. Rubin's work powerfully indicated the real existence of this strange form of invisible matter--the dark matter.
Following closely on the heels of Rubin's findings, a number of important observations were made by other scientists suggesting that the ghostly dark matter was hiding secretly in the Cosmos. These later discoveries were based on observations that included the gravitational lensing of background objects by foreground galaxy clusters such as the Bullet Cluster; the temperature and distribution of searing-hot gas within galaxies and galaxy clusters and--more recently--the pattern of anisotropies observed in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. The CMB radiation is the relic radiation of the Big Bang birth of the Universe about 13.8 billion years ago. The anisotropies observed in the CMB originated from temperature variations in the newborn Cosmos. Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon proposed by Albert Einstein in his Theory of General Relativity (1915), when he suggested that gravity could warp, bend, and magnify Spacetime and, as a result, distort the path that traveling light takes through the Universe--thus having lens-like effects.
The dark matter hypothesis plays a prominent role in current modeling of the formation of cosmic structure, as well as galaxy birth and evolution. The presence of dark matter has also been used by scientists to explain the anisotropies observed in the CMB radiation. All of the lines of evidence, collected by scientists so far, indicate that galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and the Universe as a whole contain more matter than what can be observed using electromagnetic signals.
Currently, the favored theory proposing the identity of dark matter suggests that it is composed of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS) that interact only through the force of gravity and (to a smaller degree) the weak nuclear force that accounts for some forms of radioactive decay (beta decay).
The most widely accepted theory proposes that the starry galaxies of the Universe trace out immense, heavy, massive web-like structures that are made up of the dark matter. The luminous starlit galaxies that dance together in groups and clusters light up and trace out this invisible Cosmic Web--outlining with their tattle-tale light that which otherwise could not be seen.
The galaxies were born less than a billion years after the Big Bang. The favored theory, called the "bottom-up" theory, proposes that large galaxies were rare denizens of the early Universe, and that large galaxies only eventually reached their magnificent, mature sizes when smaller protogalactic blobs merged together to create bigger things. The earliest galaxies were likely only about one-tenth the size of our large spiral Milky Way Galaxy--but they were just as brilliant because they were fiercely producing a multitude of dazzling newborn baby stars. It is thought that these very bright, relatively small ancient galactic structures served as the "seeds" from which modern galaxies grew.
In the baby Universe, opaque clouds of gas collected together along the massive filaments of the great Cosmic Web. During that very early, murky epoch, long before the first stars ignited, these opaque clouds of mostly hydrogen gas bumped into one another along the dark matter filaments. The dark matter gravitationally snatched these clouds of pristine, primordial gas, which then evolved into the nurseries of the first generation of stars to light up the Cosmos.
It is generally thought that the first galaxies were blobs of gas, pooling at the mysterious hearts of halos composed of the invisible, ghostly dark matter--and that these halos hoisted in the first batches of newborn baby stars. The dazzling, sparkling baby stars and searing-hot glaring clouds of gas lit up what had previously been a dark, dismal expanse.
However, at this point, there are still some alternative possibilities. For example, "ordinary" baryonic matter could still account for what we call the dark matter if it is contained in brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs are "failed stars" that were probably born the same way as their successful stellar kin--from the collapse of dense regions embedded within giant, cold, dark molecular clouds. Alas, little brown dwarfs never managed to accrete the necessary mass to trigger nuclear-fusion reactions that could light their starry fires--and, therefore, they never sent their brilliant light shining throughout the Universe
Mysterious Dark Matter Is Missing In Ancient Galaxies
An international team of astronomers, led by Dr. Reinhard Genzel of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany, collected deep imaging spectroscopy of several hundred massive, star-birthing galaxies in the distant Universe. This newly obtained information enabled the astronomers to determine the rotation curves, which provide important constraints on the mass distribution out to the very edge of the visible galactic disks for both dark matter and "ordinary" atomic matter at the peak epoch of galaxy formation. For six of the galaxies with the highest quality of obtained data, the astronomers were able to calculate individual rotation curves, while they used a clever stacking approach for about 100 galaxies in order to constrain, on average, representative rotation curves.
"Surprisingly, the rotation velocities are not constant, but drop with radius. The reason for this is twofold: First, most of these early massive galaxies are strongly dominated by normal matter with dark matter playing a much smaller role than in the local Universe. Second, these early disks were much more turbulent than the spiral galaxies we see in our cosmic neighborhood, so they did not need as much circular motion to be dynamically supported," Dr. Genzel explained in a March 16, 2017 Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (Mpe.Mpg) Press Release. Dr. Genzel is first author of a paper about the new findings of this study appearing in the March 16, 2017 issue of the journal Nature.
Both effects apparently increase with distance--this means that they played a larger role at earlier cosmic times. In astronomy, the more distant an object is in Space, the older it is in Time, as a result of the expansion of the Universe. This indicates that in the young Universe, approximately 3 to 4 billion years after the Big Bang, the gas contained in galaxies had already very efficiently condensed at the center of large halos of dark matter. It took billions of years for the dark matter in the halo to condense as well, and it was not until later times that it exerted a dominant effect on the rotation velocities of modern disk galaxies. This explanation also fits well with the fact that the most distant--and most ancient--galaxies were more richly endowed with gas, and were also more compact, than modern disk galaxies that are relatively close. Such a plentiful amount of gas helps to dissipate angular momentum and to force the gas to travel inwards.
"We have to be very careful when comparing these early massive and gas-rich galaxies to the ones in our local Universe. Present-day spirals, such as our Milky Way, require additional dark matter in various amounts. On the other hand, local passive galaxies--which are dominated by a spheroidal component and are the likely descendants of the galaxies in our study--show similarly low dark matter fractions on galactic scales," explained Dr. Natascha Forster Schreiber in the March 16, 2017 Mpe.Mpg Press Release. Dr. Schreiber, a study co-author, is of the Mpe.Mpg.
In addition, two studies of 240 star-birthing disks support these findings. Detailed dynamical modeling reveals that, while "ordinary" atomic matter accounts for about 56% of the entire mass fraction of all galaxies, it completely dominates the inner matter distribution for galaxies at the greatest distances in the early Universe.
Dr. Stijn Wuyts of the University of Bath in the UK, and a co-author on all four papers, noted in the March 16, 2017 Mpe.Mpg Press Release that "You can do the arithmetic, the dynamics reveal the total mass present. Subtract from that what we see in the form of stars and gas, and there really is not much room left for dark matter within these early disk galaxies. The dropping rotation curves are not only in line with these results, they provide a more direct indication of the baryon dominated nature, especially to researchers that have a healthy skepticism about the accuracy with which one can measure the amount of stars and gas in these distant objects."
Judith E. Braffman-Miller is a writer and astronomer whose articles have been published since 1981 in various newspapers, journals, and magazines. Although she has written on a variety of topics, she particularly loves writing about astronomy because it gives her the opportunity to communicate to others the many wonders of her field. Her first book, "Wisps, Ashes, and Smoke," will be published soon.
By Judith E Braffman-Miller
Article Source: Mysterious Dark Matter Is Missing In Ancient Galaxies
The international team of astronomers, led by the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany, mapped the rotation curves of six galaxies in the ancient Universe to distances of approximately 65,000 light-years from their secretive hearts and found that their rotation velocities are not constant but drop with radius. These new findings have been supported by observations of over 200 more galaxies, where varying estimates of their dynamical conditions also show a high baryonic mass fraction. Furthermore, the new calculations suggest that these very early galaxies had a much thicker disk, with turbulent motion accounting for a percentage of the dynamical support.
For decades, numerous different studies of galaxies inhabiting the local Universe have unveiled the existence, as well as the importance, of the dark matter. While "ordinary", or baryonic matter, can be observed as dazzling stars or glowing clouds of gas and dust, the dark matter exclusively dances with "ordinary" matter through the force of gravity. Most importantly, the dark matter is generally thought to be responsible for flat rotation curves in spiral galaxies--that are similar to our own Milky Way. This means that the rotation velocities of spiral galaxies are either constant or increasing with radius.
In The Dark
Scientists are much more certain about what the dark matter is not than what it is. By fitting a theoretical model of the composition of the Cosmos to the combined set of cosmological observations, astronomers have determined that the approximate composition of the Cosmos is 68% dark energy, 27% dark matter, and only 5% baryonic--or "ordinary" atomic matter. Even though atomic matter is obviously the runt of the Cosmic litter of three, it is really extraordinary because it is the material that brought life into the Universe. Atomic matter accounts for literally every atomic element listed in the familiar Periodic Table. The Big Bang birth of the Universe, almost 14 billion years ago, manufactured only the lightest of atomic elements--hydrogen, helium, and scant quantities of lithium and beryllium. All of the atomic elements heavier than helium were created in the searing-hot nuclear-fusing furnaces of the stars, or in the supernova explosions that herald the demise of the most massive stars in the Universe. Atomic elements heavier than helium are termed metals by astronomers--and, therefore, the term metal carries a different meaning for astronomers than it does for chemists.
As early as 1915, physicists began to suspect that an invisible form of matter--meaning matter that is not detectable using electromagnetic radiation--might lurk in the Universe secretly. The term dark matter was coined by the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn (1851-1922) who, at the beginning of the 20th century, observed the movements of the stars within our Milky Way Galaxy. However, Kapteyn came to the conclusion that no such matter could really exist in the Universe.
In 1932, the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort (1900-1992), in an effort to explain the orbital velocities of stars in our Galaxy, was the first to actually propose dark matter's true existence in nature. In 1933, Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974), a Swiss-American astrophysicist at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, also proposed the real existence of an abundant form of transparent matter. Zwicky did this in an effort to explain evidence of "missing mass" hiding phantom-like in the Cosmos, revealing its presence only by the way it influenced the orbital velocities of galaxies within distant galaxy clusters. Strong evidence derived from galactic rotation curves was obtained by the Caltech astrophysicist Horace W. Babcock (1912-2003) in 1939, but he did not attribute his highly suggestive observations to the existence of the dark matter.
The American astronomer, Vera Rubin (1928-2016), performed pioneering work on galaxy rotation rates. She was responsible for uncovering the discrepancy between the predicted angular motion of galaxies and their observed motion. This nagging discrepancy became known as the galaxy rotation problem, and it originally met with considerable skepticism. However, Rubin's results were ultimately confirmed over subsequent decades.
Rubin, who was of the Carnegie Institute's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in Washington D.C., began work that was related to her controversial thesis regarding galaxy clusters with her colleague, the instrument-maker, Kent Ford (b. 1931). Together Rubin and Ford made hundreds of observations, resulting in what is known as the Rubin-Ford Effect. Rubin's work powerfully indicated the real existence of this strange form of invisible matter--the dark matter.
Following closely on the heels of Rubin's findings, a number of important observations were made by other scientists suggesting that the ghostly dark matter was hiding secretly in the Cosmos. These later discoveries were based on observations that included the gravitational lensing of background objects by foreground galaxy clusters such as the Bullet Cluster; the temperature and distribution of searing-hot gas within galaxies and galaxy clusters and--more recently--the pattern of anisotropies observed in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. The CMB radiation is the relic radiation of the Big Bang birth of the Universe about 13.8 billion years ago. The anisotropies observed in the CMB originated from temperature variations in the newborn Cosmos. Gravitational lensing is a phenomenon proposed by Albert Einstein in his Theory of General Relativity (1915), when he suggested that gravity could warp, bend, and magnify Spacetime and, as a result, distort the path that traveling light takes through the Universe--thus having lens-like effects.
The dark matter hypothesis plays a prominent role in current modeling of the formation of cosmic structure, as well as galaxy birth and evolution. The presence of dark matter has also been used by scientists to explain the anisotropies observed in the CMB radiation. All of the lines of evidence, collected by scientists so far, indicate that galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and the Universe as a whole contain more matter than what can be observed using electromagnetic signals.
Currently, the favored theory proposing the identity of dark matter suggests that it is composed of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS) that interact only through the force of gravity and (to a smaller degree) the weak nuclear force that accounts for some forms of radioactive decay (beta decay).
The most widely accepted theory proposes that the starry galaxies of the Universe trace out immense, heavy, massive web-like structures that are made up of the dark matter. The luminous starlit galaxies that dance together in groups and clusters light up and trace out this invisible Cosmic Web--outlining with their tattle-tale light that which otherwise could not be seen.
The galaxies were born less than a billion years after the Big Bang. The favored theory, called the "bottom-up" theory, proposes that large galaxies were rare denizens of the early Universe, and that large galaxies only eventually reached their magnificent, mature sizes when smaller protogalactic blobs merged together to create bigger things. The earliest galaxies were likely only about one-tenth the size of our large spiral Milky Way Galaxy--but they were just as brilliant because they were fiercely producing a multitude of dazzling newborn baby stars. It is thought that these very bright, relatively small ancient galactic structures served as the "seeds" from which modern galaxies grew.
In the baby Universe, opaque clouds of gas collected together along the massive filaments of the great Cosmic Web. During that very early, murky epoch, long before the first stars ignited, these opaque clouds of mostly hydrogen gas bumped into one another along the dark matter filaments. The dark matter gravitationally snatched these clouds of pristine, primordial gas, which then evolved into the nurseries of the first generation of stars to light up the Cosmos.
It is generally thought that the first galaxies were blobs of gas, pooling at the mysterious hearts of halos composed of the invisible, ghostly dark matter--and that these halos hoisted in the first batches of newborn baby stars. The dazzling, sparkling baby stars and searing-hot glaring clouds of gas lit up what had previously been a dark, dismal expanse.
However, at this point, there are still some alternative possibilities. For example, "ordinary" baryonic matter could still account for what we call the dark matter if it is contained in brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs are "failed stars" that were probably born the same way as their successful stellar kin--from the collapse of dense regions embedded within giant, cold, dark molecular clouds. Alas, little brown dwarfs never managed to accrete the necessary mass to trigger nuclear-fusion reactions that could light their starry fires--and, therefore, they never sent their brilliant light shining throughout the Universe
Mysterious Dark Matter Is Missing In Ancient Galaxies
An international team of astronomers, led by Dr. Reinhard Genzel of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany, collected deep imaging spectroscopy of several hundred massive, star-birthing galaxies in the distant Universe. This newly obtained information enabled the astronomers to determine the rotation curves, which provide important constraints on the mass distribution out to the very edge of the visible galactic disks for both dark matter and "ordinary" atomic matter at the peak epoch of galaxy formation. For six of the galaxies with the highest quality of obtained data, the astronomers were able to calculate individual rotation curves, while they used a clever stacking approach for about 100 galaxies in order to constrain, on average, representative rotation curves.
"Surprisingly, the rotation velocities are not constant, but drop with radius. The reason for this is twofold: First, most of these early massive galaxies are strongly dominated by normal matter with dark matter playing a much smaller role than in the local Universe. Second, these early disks were much more turbulent than the spiral galaxies we see in our cosmic neighborhood, so they did not need as much circular motion to be dynamically supported," Dr. Genzel explained in a March 16, 2017 Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (Mpe.Mpg) Press Release. Dr. Genzel is first author of a paper about the new findings of this study appearing in the March 16, 2017 issue of the journal Nature.
Both effects apparently increase with distance--this means that they played a larger role at earlier cosmic times. In astronomy, the more distant an object is in Space, the older it is in Time, as a result of the expansion of the Universe. This indicates that in the young Universe, approximately 3 to 4 billion years after the Big Bang, the gas contained in galaxies had already very efficiently condensed at the center of large halos of dark matter. It took billions of years for the dark matter in the halo to condense as well, and it was not until later times that it exerted a dominant effect on the rotation velocities of modern disk galaxies. This explanation also fits well with the fact that the most distant--and most ancient--galaxies were more richly endowed with gas, and were also more compact, than modern disk galaxies that are relatively close. Such a plentiful amount of gas helps to dissipate angular momentum and to force the gas to travel inwards.
"We have to be very careful when comparing these early massive and gas-rich galaxies to the ones in our local Universe. Present-day spirals, such as our Milky Way, require additional dark matter in various amounts. On the other hand, local passive galaxies--which are dominated by a spheroidal component and are the likely descendants of the galaxies in our study--show similarly low dark matter fractions on galactic scales," explained Dr. Natascha Forster Schreiber in the March 16, 2017 Mpe.Mpg Press Release. Dr. Schreiber, a study co-author, is of the Mpe.Mpg.
In addition, two studies of 240 star-birthing disks support these findings. Detailed dynamical modeling reveals that, while "ordinary" atomic matter accounts for about 56% of the entire mass fraction of all galaxies, it completely dominates the inner matter distribution for galaxies at the greatest distances in the early Universe.
Dr. Stijn Wuyts of the University of Bath in the UK, and a co-author on all four papers, noted in the March 16, 2017 Mpe.Mpg Press Release that "You can do the arithmetic, the dynamics reveal the total mass present. Subtract from that what we see in the form of stars and gas, and there really is not much room left for dark matter within these early disk galaxies. The dropping rotation curves are not only in line with these results, they provide a more direct indication of the baryon dominated nature, especially to researchers that have a healthy skepticism about the accuracy with which one can measure the amount of stars and gas in these distant objects."
Judith E. Braffman-Miller is a writer and astronomer whose articles have been published since 1981 in various newspapers, journals, and magazines. Although she has written on a variety of topics, she particularly loves writing about astronomy because it gives her the opportunity to communicate to others the many wonders of her field. Her first book, "Wisps, Ashes, and Smoke," will be published soon.
By Judith E Braffman-Miller
Article Source: Mysterious Dark Matter Is Missing In Ancient Galaxies
Why Choose Luxury Over the Ordinary During Your Trip?
Let it be a business trip, or a vacation. If a sufficient budget supports you, then there's always a luxurious hotel waiting to serve you and make sure the experience is something you can never forget. What benefits do you get by staying at a luxury hotel rather than a normal one?
1. The advantage of ultimate relaxation
Imagine going to an idyllic location and enjoying the beauty of it during a vacation. Coming back to a normal hotel wouldn't be so delightful or comfortable from the long day now would it? In a business trip on another note, you would be tired and probably stressed from the work and possibly be wanting a great pampered feeling when you walk into that room of yours to finally relax after a hard working day. A normal hotel would be comfortable, but it wouldn't be as satisfying as an experience given by a luxurious one.
2. Where to find luxurious hotels?
Numerous luxury hotels are situated in highly popular areas of tourist travelers, as they target popularity in order to give maximum satisfaction. Just find out the best location and its crowd-pleasing attractions. Many hotels offer special amenities such as inclusive of resorts or combined with suitable city public entertainment.
3. Pampering and convenience with children.
If you plan to travel with children, then have a proper knowledge of the hotel's strategy of young travelers. Some hotels do not allow travelers younger than a certain age, which can become quite difficult to handle and sort out at the last minute. Whereas, many luxurious hotels pamper the guests and their younger ones to childcare, or child clubs in order for the parents to enjoy the trip with a break, or to have them assured that their children are well taken care of as they attend meetings if it's a business purpose trip.
4. How to choose the right one?
Choosing the right hotel at the right time is the most important thing, as hotels that are situated in areas where multiple activities take place are more likely to be busy and congested compared to the ones that are not situated in busy areas. So it's best to properly go through details ahead of time to avoid chaos.
5. Off-season bonus!
The best time to really enjoy a luxurious residence is to travel during off-season. Travelling during off-season is a great way to experience fewer crowds and maximize your experience at the destination. Another benefit of travelling off-season is having lower rates and greater services when compared to the in-season ones. Some hotels even offer special packages for travelers that visit during off-seasons to make their stay more comfortable. How great would that be!
So, be sure to check for those promotional advantages that can let you have the best experience! If the destination is completely out of your knowledge, then it may be wise of you to use the help of a proper agent before booking your trip. So rethink about staying at a normal residence and try to consider a stay at a luxury hotel with services ready for you to appreciate in order to make your trip more pleasurable!
To know more about boutique hotels in Sri Lanka, please check our website.
By Achal Mehrotra
Article Source: Why Choose Luxury Over the Ordinary During Your Trip?
1. The advantage of ultimate relaxation
Imagine going to an idyllic location and enjoying the beauty of it during a vacation. Coming back to a normal hotel wouldn't be so delightful or comfortable from the long day now would it? In a business trip on another note, you would be tired and probably stressed from the work and possibly be wanting a great pampered feeling when you walk into that room of yours to finally relax after a hard working day. A normal hotel would be comfortable, but it wouldn't be as satisfying as an experience given by a luxurious one.
2. Where to find luxurious hotels?
Numerous luxury hotels are situated in highly popular areas of tourist travelers, as they target popularity in order to give maximum satisfaction. Just find out the best location and its crowd-pleasing attractions. Many hotels offer special amenities such as inclusive of resorts or combined with suitable city public entertainment.
3. Pampering and convenience with children.
If you plan to travel with children, then have a proper knowledge of the hotel's strategy of young travelers. Some hotels do not allow travelers younger than a certain age, which can become quite difficult to handle and sort out at the last minute. Whereas, many luxurious hotels pamper the guests and their younger ones to childcare, or child clubs in order for the parents to enjoy the trip with a break, or to have them assured that their children are well taken care of as they attend meetings if it's a business purpose trip.
4. How to choose the right one?
Choosing the right hotel at the right time is the most important thing, as hotels that are situated in areas where multiple activities take place are more likely to be busy and congested compared to the ones that are not situated in busy areas. So it's best to properly go through details ahead of time to avoid chaos.
5. Off-season bonus!
The best time to really enjoy a luxurious residence is to travel during off-season. Travelling during off-season is a great way to experience fewer crowds and maximize your experience at the destination. Another benefit of travelling off-season is having lower rates and greater services when compared to the in-season ones. Some hotels even offer special packages for travelers that visit during off-seasons to make their stay more comfortable. How great would that be!
So, be sure to check for those promotional advantages that can let you have the best experience! If the destination is completely out of your knowledge, then it may be wise of you to use the help of a proper agent before booking your trip. So rethink about staying at a normal residence and try to consider a stay at a luxury hotel with services ready for you to appreciate in order to make your trip more pleasurable!
To know more about boutique hotels in Sri Lanka, please check our website.
By Achal Mehrotra
Article Source: Why Choose Luxury Over the Ordinary During Your Trip?
Everything About Sintered Silicon Carbide
Sintered silicon carbide, also known as self-sintered silicon carbide is the one that has no silica in it. It is produced by blending fine silicon carbide powder with the non-oxide sintering aids. Isostatic pressing, die pressing and injection moulding is used to form the powdered material. After the forming stage, the particles are sintered at very high temperatures of up to 2000�C.
The sintered silicon carbide has several key properties that differentiate it from the others.
• The density of the sintered carborundum is approximately the same as aluminium. It has a very low density of about 40 percent of steel.
• The sintered silicon has a great resistance to wear and tear in rather abrasive environments
• It is very hard and comes second after diamond
• It has a great resistance to corrosion in most environments of chemical
• The sintered silicon carbide has a rather low porosity
• It has an excellent thermal conductor and has a low thermal expansion meaning it provides resistance to thermal shocks.
Being a thermal conductor, it is one of the most used materials for making the design of mechanical seal face. It is hence used in hot oil applications and very hot water.
The sintered silicon carbide is used in radial or axial slide bearings, valving, face seals for gas, oil chemical pumps, and in equipment like dies and nozzles.
Applications of the sintered silicon carbide
Armour
The sintered carborundum is known for its low specific density that makes it appropriate to be used where there is a critical need of weight requirements. The material is known to perform efficiently as a ceramic material in the manufacturing of armour protection systems. The compressive strength, high hardness and elastic modulus provides it superior capability.
Heat Exchanger Tubes
The sintered carborundum tubes are used in the chemical process industry in the tube heat exchangers and shells. The tubes are approximately over four metres in length that are used in these applications.
Paper industry applications
The sintered carborundum is known for its good resistance to wear and corrosion. The material is known to have a hard surface that can be given highly smooth and polished finishes. This finish provides excellent compatibility with the forming fabrics and the coefficients of friction.
Process Industry Valve Application
The excellent resistance to corrosion of the material makes it great to be used for valve applications. HF acid handling, rare earth processing and slurry flashing too use the material's valve components.
To know more about reaction bonded Silicon Carbide, please check our website.
By Achal Mehrotra
Article Source: Everything About Sintered Silicon Carbide
The sintered silicon carbide has several key properties that differentiate it from the others.
• The density of the sintered carborundum is approximately the same as aluminium. It has a very low density of about 40 percent of steel.
• The sintered silicon has a great resistance to wear and tear in rather abrasive environments
• It is very hard and comes second after diamond
• It has a great resistance to corrosion in most environments of chemical
• The sintered silicon carbide has a rather low porosity
• It has an excellent thermal conductor and has a low thermal expansion meaning it provides resistance to thermal shocks.
Being a thermal conductor, it is one of the most used materials for making the design of mechanical seal face. It is hence used in hot oil applications and very hot water.
The sintered silicon carbide is used in radial or axial slide bearings, valving, face seals for gas, oil chemical pumps, and in equipment like dies and nozzles.
Applications of the sintered silicon carbide
Armour
The sintered carborundum is known for its low specific density that makes it appropriate to be used where there is a critical need of weight requirements. The material is known to perform efficiently as a ceramic material in the manufacturing of armour protection systems. The compressive strength, high hardness and elastic modulus provides it superior capability.
Heat Exchanger Tubes
The sintered carborundum tubes are used in the chemical process industry in the tube heat exchangers and shells. The tubes are approximately over four metres in length that are used in these applications.
Paper industry applications
The sintered carborundum is known for its good resistance to wear and corrosion. The material is known to have a hard surface that can be given highly smooth and polished finishes. This finish provides excellent compatibility with the forming fabrics and the coefficients of friction.
Process Industry Valve Application
The excellent resistance to corrosion of the material makes it great to be used for valve applications. HF acid handling, rare earth processing and slurry flashing too use the material's valve components.
To know more about reaction bonded Silicon Carbide, please check our website.
By Achal Mehrotra
Article Source: Everything About Sintered Silicon Carbide
Don't The Socialists Ever Learn - Student Loan Debt Bubble Crisis
While the Democrats and Republicans fight and argue over what to do about repealing and replacing ObamaCare which is almost in full-crisis mode, no one seems to be looking at the Student Debt Crisis and the potential implosion of higher education. Maybe everyone hopes to put that off until the 2018-2019 Federal Budget, because there is no more money left if we return our US Military to full-readiness and take our ObamaCare losses (cut and run) then replace it with something that at least has a running chance.
The was an interesting article on MSNBC Money page on June 7, 2014 titled; "Obama to issue order easing student loan debt pressures," which stated;
"Obama will issue an executive action on Monday aimed at making it easier for young people to avoid trouble repaying student loans. An order directing the secretary of education to ensure that more students who borrowed federal direct loans cap their loan payments at 10% of their monthly incomes. Federal law currently allows most students to do this already. The president's order will extend this ability to students who borrowed before October 2007, and who have not borrowed since 10/2011."
Additionally, the article noted the Obama Administration is trying to help 5-million borrower stay out of default stating; "Many student loan borrowers are working and trying to responsibly make their monthly payments, but are nonetheless struggling with burdensome debt." Now for some tough questions:
1. Why are we subsidizing higher education which refuses to innovate and adapt to the new paradigm of instant information and a changing of our workforce demands.
2. Why is the Obama Administration further propping up a bubble, didn't we learn anything from the subsidized housing bubble?
3. Why is nothing being done to reign in tuition costs which have outpaced inflation every year by a factor at least 5% or more for the last 2 decades?
4. Why are we busy economically enslaving our next generation with worthless degrees in industries that will not exist in the next 5-10 years at all?
Indeed, as the founder of a Think Tank that happens to operate online, I hate to be a party pooper, with a giants super-duper pooper scooper - but it is time we addressed these real concerns, as the problems with the student loan debt are getting bigger every years, actually every semester. Have you seen the numbers now? Over 1.4 Trillion in outstanding loans, and 45% are 90-days or more in the rears or have never made a single payment - all the while students are graduating with degrees for which no jobs of those type exist. Please consider all this and think on it.
Lance Winslow has launched a new provocative series of eBooks on the Future of Education. Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank; http://www.worldthinktank.net.
By Lance Winslow
Article Source: Don't The Socialists Ever Learn - Student Loan Debt Bubble Crisis
The was an interesting article on MSNBC Money page on June 7, 2014 titled; "Obama to issue order easing student loan debt pressures," which stated;
"Obama will issue an executive action on Monday aimed at making it easier for young people to avoid trouble repaying student loans. An order directing the secretary of education to ensure that more students who borrowed federal direct loans cap their loan payments at 10% of their monthly incomes. Federal law currently allows most students to do this already. The president's order will extend this ability to students who borrowed before October 2007, and who have not borrowed since 10/2011."
Additionally, the article noted the Obama Administration is trying to help 5-million borrower stay out of default stating; "Many student loan borrowers are working and trying to responsibly make their monthly payments, but are nonetheless struggling with burdensome debt." Now for some tough questions:
1. Why are we subsidizing higher education which refuses to innovate and adapt to the new paradigm of instant information and a changing of our workforce demands.
2. Why is the Obama Administration further propping up a bubble, didn't we learn anything from the subsidized housing bubble?
3. Why is nothing being done to reign in tuition costs which have outpaced inflation every year by a factor at least 5% or more for the last 2 decades?
4. Why are we busy economically enslaving our next generation with worthless degrees in industries that will not exist in the next 5-10 years at all?
Indeed, as the founder of a Think Tank that happens to operate online, I hate to be a party pooper, with a giants super-duper pooper scooper - but it is time we addressed these real concerns, as the problems with the student loan debt are getting bigger every years, actually every semester. Have you seen the numbers now? Over 1.4 Trillion in outstanding loans, and 45% are 90-days or more in the rears or have never made a single payment - all the while students are graduating with degrees for which no jobs of those type exist. Please consider all this and think on it.
Lance Winslow has launched a new provocative series of eBooks on the Future of Education. Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank; http://www.worldthinktank.net.
By Lance Winslow
Article Source: Don't The Socialists Ever Learn - Student Loan Debt Bubble Crisis
Make Tax Liens Disappear
When tax liens, bankruptcies and judgments appear on credit reports, they can prevent sureties from issuing bonds and banks from granting loans. This can be devastating for construction companies that need both to succeed.
Are there ways to get the tax lien off the credit report? Yes! Let's find out how.
According to the government: "A federal tax lien is the government's legal claim against your property when you neglect or fail to pay a tax debt. The lien protects the government's interest in all your property, including real estate, personal property and financial assets."
For surety bond underwriters, the tax lien is a red flag for a number of reasons:
It can mean the bond applicant had insufficient cash flow to meet their financial obligations.
It may be a sign of poor management or weak internal controls.
The scariest part may be the "weapons" used by the IRS to collect their tax money. They can issue a tax levy. This permits the legal seizure of property to satisfy the tax debt. They can garnish wages and take money from a bank or other financial account. They also have the ability to seize and sell vehicles, real estate and personal property. These collection activities can threaten the success of bonded projects to the detriment of the contractor and surety. Bad for everyone except the IRS agent.
Here is how to remove tax liens from the credit report:
Wait. Eventually the credit bureau may drop it from the report even if it is not paid, but this can take years.
Pay the tax bill. Eliminating the debt will not remove the lien from the credit report, but will show it as "released." For credit grantors, this is still negative, but less threatening. Paid liens remain on the report for seven years. So the next step is also needed...
Federal form 12277. With this document you can ask the IRS to withdraw (remove) the lien notice, even when the debt is not paid off!
More about form 12277
This is part of the federal "Fresh Start" program, which provides certain benefits to taxpayers. 12277 is the Application for Withdrawal form. The IRS will consider withdrawing the lien notice if the debt is being paid through a Direct Deposit installment agreement, plus a few other conditions.
The purpose of the Application for Withdrawal is not to eliminate the lien, but to remove it from public view when there is no longer the threat of a tax levy. Consider using this procedure on liens that are not paid off, and those that are!
In both cases it is legal and beneficial to have the lien disappear. But is this practice unfair or deceptive? No, because banks and bonding companies have other ways of detecting the lien. They are not being deprived of relevant information. For example, the debt will appear in the financial statements and also on the Contractor Questionnaire.
One more comment about the dreaded, draconian tax levy: Before the IRS proceeds with the levy they are required to send the taxpayer a Final Notice of Intent to Levy and Notice of Your Right to A Hearing. This gives the taxpayer one last chance to argue against the levy before it is implemented. Go for it. Maybe it will help. Remember - they're from the government and they're here to help!
Now you know the ways to remove a federal tax lien from view. By waiting, paying and / or using form 12277, the lien can be wiped from the credit report. For the taxpayer, it can be an important step toward financial recovery.
Please note: We are not attorneys and are not intending to give legal advice. For that, call your attorney. If you need a surety bond, call us!
Steve Golia is an experienced provider of bid and performance bonds for contractors. For more than 30 years he has specialized in solving bond problems for contractors, and helping them when others failed.
The experts at Bonding Pros have the underwriting talent and market access you need. This is coupled with spectacular service and great accessibility.
Contact us today and discuss how you start a new bonding relationship for your company, or increase your current bonding capacity. Call 856-304-7348.
Visit us Click!
Not available in all states including Idaho.
By Steven Golia
Article Source: Make Tax Liens Disappear
Are there ways to get the tax lien off the credit report? Yes! Let's find out how.
According to the government: "A federal tax lien is the government's legal claim against your property when you neglect or fail to pay a tax debt. The lien protects the government's interest in all your property, including real estate, personal property and financial assets."
For surety bond underwriters, the tax lien is a red flag for a number of reasons:
It can mean the bond applicant had insufficient cash flow to meet their financial obligations.
It may be a sign of poor management or weak internal controls.
The scariest part may be the "weapons" used by the IRS to collect their tax money. They can issue a tax levy. This permits the legal seizure of property to satisfy the tax debt. They can garnish wages and take money from a bank or other financial account. They also have the ability to seize and sell vehicles, real estate and personal property. These collection activities can threaten the success of bonded projects to the detriment of the contractor and surety. Bad for everyone except the IRS agent.
Here is how to remove tax liens from the credit report:
Wait. Eventually the credit bureau may drop it from the report even if it is not paid, but this can take years.
Pay the tax bill. Eliminating the debt will not remove the lien from the credit report, but will show it as "released." For credit grantors, this is still negative, but less threatening. Paid liens remain on the report for seven years. So the next step is also needed...
Federal form 12277. With this document you can ask the IRS to withdraw (remove) the lien notice, even when the debt is not paid off!
More about form 12277
This is part of the federal "Fresh Start" program, which provides certain benefits to taxpayers. 12277 is the Application for Withdrawal form. The IRS will consider withdrawing the lien notice if the debt is being paid through a Direct Deposit installment agreement, plus a few other conditions.
The purpose of the Application for Withdrawal is not to eliminate the lien, but to remove it from public view when there is no longer the threat of a tax levy. Consider using this procedure on liens that are not paid off, and those that are!
In both cases it is legal and beneficial to have the lien disappear. But is this practice unfair or deceptive? No, because banks and bonding companies have other ways of detecting the lien. They are not being deprived of relevant information. For example, the debt will appear in the financial statements and also on the Contractor Questionnaire.
One more comment about the dreaded, draconian tax levy: Before the IRS proceeds with the levy they are required to send the taxpayer a Final Notice of Intent to Levy and Notice of Your Right to A Hearing. This gives the taxpayer one last chance to argue against the levy before it is implemented. Go for it. Maybe it will help. Remember - they're from the government and they're here to help!
Now you know the ways to remove a federal tax lien from view. By waiting, paying and / or using form 12277, the lien can be wiped from the credit report. For the taxpayer, it can be an important step toward financial recovery.
Please note: We are not attorneys and are not intending to give legal advice. For that, call your attorney. If you need a surety bond, call us!
Steve Golia is an experienced provider of bid and performance bonds for contractors. For more than 30 years he has specialized in solving bond problems for contractors, and helping them when others failed.
The experts at Bonding Pros have the underwriting talent and market access you need. This is coupled with spectacular service and great accessibility.
Contact us today and discuss how you start a new bonding relationship for your company, or increase your current bonding capacity. Call 856-304-7348.
Visit us Click!
Not available in all states including Idaho.
By Steven Golia
Article Source: Make Tax Liens Disappear
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